Atomic Number:
Atomic Mass: 209

Polonium is one of the most intriguing and dangerous elements on the periodic table. Discovered in the late 19th century, this highly radioactive metal has a dark history and limited but significant modern applications. Polonium’s deadly nature came to worldwide attention with the high-profile poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko in 2006, a shocking case that underscored the element’s potential for lethal misuse. In this blog post, we’ll explore the discovery of polonium, its properties, modern-day uses, and the infamous case of Litvinenko’s poisoning.

The Discovery of Polonium

Polonium was discovered in 1898 by the pioneering Polish scientist Marie Curie and her husband, Pierre Curie, while they were conducting research on radioactive materials. Marie Curie named the element after her homeland, Poland, which at the time was under partition by the Russian Empire, the German Empire, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The discovery of polonium, along with radium, helped solidify the Curies’ place in scientific history and contributed to Marie Curie being awarded two Nobel Prizes in physics and chemistry.

The discovery took place in Paris, France, while the Curies were analyzing a mineral called pitchblende (now known as uraninite), which was known to contain uranium. They found that after removing the uranium from pitchblende, the remaining material was still highly radioactive. This led them to the identification of two new elements: polonium and radium. Polonium, with the atomic number 84 and symbol Po, was the first element they discovered.

Properties of Polonium

Polonium is a rare, highly radioactive metal. It occurs naturally in very small amounts in the Earth’s crust and is often found in uranium ores. Polonium is notable for its intense radioactivity—it can emit alpha particles at a rate 5,000 times higher than that of radium. Due to this high level of radioactivity, even minuscule amounts of polonium can be extremely dangerous to human health.

Polonium’s most stable isotope, polonium-210, has a half-life of about 138 days. While alpha radiation (the type of radiation emitted by polonium) is not particularly penetrating, meaning it can be blocked by something as simple as paper or skin, ingesting or inhaling polonium is deadly. Once inside the body, the alpha particles wreak havoc on internal tissues and organs.

Modern-Day Uses of Polonium

Although highly dangerous, polonium has a few specialized applications in modern industries and scientific research:

1. Anti-Static Devices

Polonium is used in certain types of anti-static devices. Because alpha particles neutralize static electricity, small amounts of polonium are used in brushes to remove static from photographic film or electronic components. This is one of the few commercial uses of polonium.

2. Nuclear Research

Due to its intense radioactivity, polonium is sometimes used in nuclear research. It can serve as a neutron source when combined with beryllium, as alpha particles emitted by polonium-210 can interact with beryllium to produce neutrons. This makes polonium useful in certain experimental setups in nuclear physics.

3. Spacecraft Power Systems (Historical)

In the early years of space exploration, polonium was used in radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) to power spacecraft. These devices convert heat generated by the decay of radioactive materials into electricity. Polonium was used in some early Soviet satellites, but its short half-life limited its usefulness in space missions compared to other longer-lasting isotopes, such as plutonium-238.

While these uses highlight polonium’s value in specific contexts, the element’s most notorious association is with its lethal potential.

The Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko

One of the most high-profile incidents involving polonium was the murder of Alexander Litvinenko, a former Russian spy and vocal critic of the Russian government. Litvinenko fled to the UK in 2000 and continued his criticism of the Russian regime from exile. His assassination in 2006 shocked the world and brought attention to the deadly properties of polonium.

The Story of Alexander Litvinenko

On November 1, 2006, Alexander Litvinenko fell ill after meeting with two Russian men—Andrei Lugovoi and Dmitry Kovtun—at a London hotel. They reportedly gave him tea laced with polonium-210, which he unknowingly ingested. Over the next three weeks, Litvinenko’s health rapidly deteriorated as the polonium poisoned his organs. On November 23, 2006, Litvinenko died from acute radiation syndrome.

An investigation revealed that Litvinenko had been poisoned with an extremely high dose of polonium-210, likely delivered in his tea. This was a deliberate and highly sophisticated assassination, as polonium-210 is difficult to obtain and handle. The case marked the first known instance of polonium being used as a murder weapon, and it drew international condemnation.

A British inquiry concluded in 2016 that Russian President Vladimir Putin “probably approved” Litvinenko’s killing, though Russia denied involvement. The use of polonium-210 in this assassination underscored both the element’s extreme lethality and the lengths to which state actors might go to silence political opponents.

Health and Safety Concerns

Polonium’s high radioactivity makes it extremely dangerous, even in very small quantities. If ingested or inhaled, polonium-210 can cause severe radiation poisoning. Alpha particles, though unable to penetrate the skin, are devastating once inside the body. They damage internal tissues, leading to cancer, organ failure, and death.

There is no known antidote for polonium poisoning. Victims typically suffer from intense radiation sickness, which includes symptoms such as hair loss, vomiting, fatigue, and damage to vital organs.

Because polonium is so hazardous, its production, handling, and disposal are heavily regulated. It is typically produced in nuclear reactors, and strict safety protocols are followed to prevent accidental exposure.

Conclusion

Polonium is a unique element with a dark and deadly history. While it has some limited industrial and scientific applications, its extreme radioactivity makes it a substance of significant concern. The assassination of Alexander Litvinenko brought polonium into the global spotlight as a tool of political murder, reminding the world of its potential for lethal misuse.

Marie Curie’s discovery of polonium revolutionized science and contributed to the understanding of radioactivity. However, as the case of Litvinenko illustrates, polonium also serves as a cautionary tale about the deadly power that certain elements can wield in the wrong hands. Whether in nuclear research or as a sinister weapon, polonium’s legacy continues to be a mix of scientific achievement and danger.